Role of Ngos in National Development and Security

THE ROLE OF NGO’S IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECURITY By ( IBRAHIM TUDU) Chairman, Zamfara State Coaltion of NGOs, Nigeria email: [email  protected] com INTRODUCTION: The term NGO has now become a popular in academic, policy and international cycles. The letters N. G. O is an abbreviation, which stands for Non-Governmental Organization, literally speaking because they are not formed by the government, not controlled by Government bureaucracy and they do not participate in decision or policy making of Government(s). SOME HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES For a better understanding of the present topic, one needs to have an insight into the history or evolution of NGOs. Community based organization’s evolution dates back decades ago. Some of the then existing voluntary organizations were very small, inexperienced and generally localized and some exist with different names, such as societies and clubs committees which are mostly friends, relations, professional groups, etc. Generally, they lack some relevant organizational capacities, funding and networking. Some of the oldest voluntary organizations established were the Anti-Slave Trade Society established in the year 1840. Another old and still surviving NGO established for humanitarian services was the International Committee for the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, an organization that out dates even the United Nations. It was established in the year 1863. It has played a major role in offering humanitarian services in major wars and conflicts. NGOs globally are developed from the need to coordinate some specifically defined activities and objectives. Beginning from 19th century, Mosques, Churches, Professional, Scientific and Cultural groups formed all kinds of associations that execute the work of NGOs. In the 20th century, specialized bodies started to spring up in such areas like sports, businesses and communications. This paper would now try to fully define the meaning of NGO and also go further to answer some questions on how, why and the need for NGOs, before finally addressing the roles they play in the national development and security which is the topic this paper is designed to address. What is an NGO? Let me begin by asking us this question. What does the term NGO stands for or what is the meaning of an NGO? Even though there is no generally or universally restricted definition of NGO, however let us bring in some definitions by some institutions and international bodies in order to explain more the meaning or the message behind the term NGO. To enable us capture the idea behind the NGOs, four of these definitions would suffice; i. The British Library, for example agrees that NGOs has to do with voluntary participation by average citizen in the affairs of his environment or communities. This is so because there is no imposed membership, control by Government or State. They are now often called Private Voluntary Organizations (PVO). ii. The World Bank, defines NGOs as private organizations that pursue basic social services, or undertake community development services. They in whole or in part depend on charitable donations and offer voluntary services. iii. The United Nations, the present name N. G. O was first coined by the U. N in the year 1945. This was mainly to distinguish them from States and Governments. iv. The International Community generally adopts another name for NGO’s, which is â€Å"Civil Society Organizations†. This is generally because they are being formed by the citizen for the good of society and are generally not for profit. NGOs are known to be legitimately engaged in activities that touch on the lives of their communities. These include economic, social, humanitarian, security and philanthropy. They are nevertheless broad in names and activities depending on their objectives, focus and mode of operation. These include associations, societies, forums, foundations, networks, charities, organizations, trusts, centers, clubs, committees, etc. Why Are NGOs Established? Let us try to address the question or give answers to the reasons on why NGOs are established by communities. The belief that not all areas, activities, fields, needs and services of the communities are perfectly and completely offered or addressed by Governments however highly advanced or principled. This makes the establishment of NGOs absolutely necessary, complimentary and very encouraging in the history and developmental need of any nation. It is generally agreed that human capital is another form of economic capital. Therefore, the vast resources and capacities accumulated by the voluntary, non-profit organizations could not be disregarded. The zeal to serve ones community and offer services to the poor and the needy or participate in developmental activities or other humanitarian and relief services are some of the motivating factors that give rise to the establishment of NGOs. Recently, the activities of NGOs are on the rise, they are at the forefront in the fight for good governance, accountability and transparency by public office holders. So many factors and challenges have caused like minded eople to unite and forge common front on some issues of the day ranging from the quest for offering social services to the people, to offering relief, humanitarian and emergency services. So also the issue of globalization, environment and anti war issues has united communities. Between 1945 to 1995, the number of NGOs has increased astronomically. Currently, even in the absence of accurate data of the number of NGOs worldwide, one can safely say that their proliferation is directly associated with the coming of new technology, communication and the Internet. On the average, a new NGOs is created somewhere in the world every day. Generally, it is our opinion that the number of CBO and NGOs in a particular locality, state or nation providing non-profit services in a very healthy development which should not be over looked by any state or government. More recently, there has been growing interest in the activities of NGOs not only in Nigeria but worldwide. How Does NGOs Operate? Worldwide, the activities and contribution of NGOs to societies through their participation and providing inexpensive, value driven and usually completely free services to communities has been acknowledged and is increasingly coming to the lime light. Even though, NGOs operate in different capacities and with numerous objectives, motivation and focus. Generally they work as pressure groups, watchdogs and developmental organizations. The United Nations for example has found it very necessary to deal with NGOs. In fact, the term NGO as earlier explained was coined by the U. N. after the WW II. Since then it has extended the ways and principles of it engagement with the NGOs by expanding and improving the way it works with them. The British and American Governments have also created a variety of regional assemblies and grouping to try to bring more people and communities into ctive participation in democratization and other major campaigns. The International Community uses numerous names to describe NGOs. These names include: Non- partisan organizations, not-for-profit, Watchdogs, Pressure Groups, Voluntary Sector, Complimentary Institutions, Stakeholders, Non State Actors, Bridge Builders, Development Partners, Grassroots Organizati ons, Community Based Organizations, Private Voluntary Organizations, Peoples Organization, Value Driven Organizations, Third Sector of the Economy, etc. The world of NGOs has continued to widen and assume more dimension and relevance today. LEGAL STATUS OF NGOs The right to establish, create or form an NGO is a fundamental human right that belong to the individuals or group of people and are not bestowed on the States or Governments. These rights are derived from the fundamental rights of an individual, group or community to free speech and association that exist in almost all civilized constitutions. However, even though NGOs have right to exist and operate as informal organizations, a crucial part of the enabling environment for NGOs requires them to incorporate and acquire formal or legal personality or status this would in turn protect the principles of such NGOs from personal liability for the affairs of the organization, such as contracts, debts or legal action. In Nigeria, for example, Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) is the body charged with the power to register NGOs that desire to operate in Nigeria. CAC derives its powers from the Companies and Allied Matters Decree No. I part C, which took effect from 2nd January 1990. So also States and Local Governments have departments of Social and Community Development and that of Youth and Sports Ministries overseeing the registration of NGOs. AN IDEAL NGO It is expected that every organization should meet some certain requirements in order to engage in legitimate activities as opposed to criminal and illegitimate groups. An ideal NGO is expected to among other things abide by the following: – †¢ To be registered with relevant authorities at the Local, State or National levels depending on the level of operation. To have a well articulated constitution or articles of association or charter. †¢ To have an executive body, and an open and simple criteria for membership or volunteers. †¢ To have an office, correspondence addresses like; post office box, telephone, email, fax, etc. †¢ To have clear and well-defined mission, vision or aims and objectives. †¢ To engage in programmes a nd activities that helped the community. †¢ To have a clean, transparent and verifiable sources of funds for their activities. †¢ To have a leadership, organogram and well established channel of communication. To have very good rappour with their community, other organizations and relevant authorities. CATEGORIES OF NGOs Even though their activities are sometimes similar and aimed at development, NGOs differ in so many ways and aspects. They can be safely categorized into various groupings. They can be CBOs, FBOs, and they can also be INGOs. The World Bank for example classified NGOs into 3 main groups, they are: – a. Community Based organizations (CBO); these are NGOs that are based or directly in touch with the Local communities and usually set up by the communities themselves, e. g. CODEC, CDF, PAMUHE in Zamfara State. b. State NGOs (SNGO) & National NGOs (NNGO); these organizations as the name implies operate as State or at national level in their countries of origin e. g. GLONIJ, FOMWAN, PEDO in Zamfara State etc c. International (INGOs); there are typically in developed countries and they usually carryout their activities in more than one country e. g. CARE, OXFAM, etc. Some of the other categories also include; d. BINGO; Business Oriented International NGOs. e. RINGO; Religious International NGOs. f. FBNGO; Faith Based NGOs. g. ENGO; Environmental NGOs. . GONGO; Government Operated NGOs. i. QUANGO; Quasi –autonomous NGOs. Further sub-divisions are also possible; Active NGOs; these are the ones that strive to address the root causes of societal problems they stage programmes that even attract the media. They are either advocacy, service or development oriented. In active NGOs; These are the less functional ones that have less or no funding whatsoever b ut attend conferences, seminars and workshops. Brief Case NGOs; These are usually one-man show often described as â€Å"Portfolio Type† or a collection of â€Å"Family Business Groups†. Umbrella Organizations for NGOs exist with names like; Networks; These are groups of NGOs from different areas, states or regions that comes from different backgrounds but working in the same field but not necessary the same focus and mission. e. g Cisnan Coalitions; these are umbrella organizations that consist of different NGOs working in different fields of human endevour. They are of differing focus, objectives and missions but they are united for the betterment of their causes and social welfare. e. g Zacons Who fund NGOs? There are a number of funding sources or bodies working with different NGOs. They may be categorizes in the following; 1. Self- Funding; Registration fees, Dues, Levies, Donations, Investments Returns, etc. 2. Local, State or Federal Governments; Naca, Zamsaca, etc 3. Foreign Governments; Like the U. S (USAID), U. K (DFID), E. U, etc. 4. UN Agencies; UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, UNIFEM, etc 5. International NGOs; Global Fund, Oxfam, AAIN, etc 6. Philanthropies/Foundations; Ford Foundation, Rock feller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, Heinrich Foundation, Melinda Gates Foundation, Packard Foundation, Macarthur Foundation, etc THE ROLE OF NGOs IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT After casting a picture of what NGOs are by showing how they operate and why they are established, we can now safely delve into their contributions national development. NGOs as non state actors, have played and are stilling playing very important and major role in initiating and supporting various Local, National and International developmental activities. To make sense out of this, one may digress a little to show how NGOs are also playing their role internationally. For example concerted campaigns, enormous pressure and actions by States together with NGOs led to the establishment of the International Court of Justice. Globally, NGOs have impacted direct and meaningful involvement in shaping the international agenda at the United Nations and regional levels through remarkable negotiations. NGOs are found in international and regional committees. They also contributed in the MDG and NEEDs programme. They are also engaged as partners in United Nations Agencies such as the UNEP, UNFAO, UNDP, UNCTAP and UNCHR. But since this is outside the scope of this paper there is no need to go further. NOW WHAT IS THE MEANING OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT? To understand the contribution of NGOs to National Development especially in Nigeria, we need to acquaint ourselves with the meaning of the term National Development. Development of any nation is defined by the advanced learners Dictionary as that nation’s process of changing and evolving pattern of becoming larger, stronger, more successful or more advanced. ‘The Roles of Civil Society and Citizen organizations (in national development) are becoming better understood around the world,† says Martin Sime, Chief Executive Officer the Scottish Council of Voluntary Organizations. NGOs has been over the past decade ahead of government on many key issues of our times,† said Mr. Naidoo an Executive social worker. Another separate testimony by Mr. Mario â€Å"Whether we take the issue of land mines, environment, HIV/AIDS, global poverty agenda, gender equity, civil society’s impact is quite significant and remarkable in terms of facing difficult challenges of our time and putting forth solutions that are more bold, more courageous and more innovative than many who are constrained by their political office† says Mario Lubetkin, Director General of the Inter Press Service (IPS). Even though NGOs as oppose to Governments, are well outside decision-making machinery of Governments, they have proved as dependable partners in the formulation of policies and programmes whenever consulted by Governments. Let us now list some areas of contribution by NGOs. 1. NGOs have contributed immensely in monitoring and exposing bad governance, corruption, child trafficking, etc. 2. They have also served as think tanks and resource base for training, capacity, research and advocacy, project planning and execution. 3. Many NGOs have gained the trust of people and Governments, so the Governments machinery has begun to engage and dialogue with them thereby tapping their expertise and skills. NGOs are now no longer considered adversaries but partners in progress. 4. NGOs have had significant progress in raising public awareness on almost any issue that arose. This they do through increased campaigns, sensitization, information collection and data analysis. 5. They have forged ties and engaged in fruitful partnership and networking among themselves. This has boosted cooperation, unity and more developmental services they render to the people. . They have played significant role in shaping the debate for sustainable development. They execute concrete projects and advocate for the formal participation of women in division making. 7. NGOs are contributing immensely in the attainment of environmental justice through protection of social, economic and environmental rights. 8. They have contributed in MDG, NEEDs, Micro credit scheme and poverty alleviation. NGOs in Zamfara State that are affiliated and members of the coalition have contributed to the development of Zamfara States in many ways and at different levels. Currently, NGOs have employed a number of youth both male and female as full time development staff and some on office routine. They can also boost of the largest collection of humanitarian volunteers from communities, civil services and the business sector. NGOs in the state have executed a lot of projects totaling more than 30 millions naira in the past 3 years alone. More then 60 projects in the area of education, health and good governance were executed in Zamfara State. NGOs have exalted themselves in areas of exchange of ideas and information. They have engaged in a number of capacity building workshops and other International Forums. NGOs have attended and represented Zamfara State in a number of seminars, workshops and conferences. In the past few years NGOs in Zamfara can boost of accomplishing the following as their own contribution to state and national development; 1. Enhancing Girls Basic Education in Communities LGAs in Zamfara State. 2. Peer Education, Kasaurara II Project in 12 Northern States. 3. Self help Community Development Projects, 4. Construction of Culverts and Drainages, 5. Participation in Environmental Sanitation Programme. 6. Quiz competition on Radio and T. V among Youth in the State. 7. Sensitization and Awareness on the Annual Hajj exercise. 8. Sensitization workshops on Reproductive Health issues. 9. Organizing of Leadership training courses. 10. Construction of Community Primary School in Tudun Wada, 11. Renovation of Boreholes. 12. Quarterly Training of Trainers Programme on HIV/AIDS. 13. Publication of Books and Journals for Adult and Children 14. Monitoring of Census and Election. 15. Youth and Women Skills training in Zamfara 16. Provision of Care and Support for PLHVA 17. Provision of Emergency and First Aid services. 18. Research Projects on Child Begging and offering solution 19. Sensitization workshop on HIV to opinion leaders. 20. Public Enlightenment of Women on current issues 21. Provision of Public Pumps at U/Zabarma, Gusau 22. Organization of Inter-Secondary Schools Debate 23. Participation in Tree Planting Campaign. 24. Staging of Conflict mitigation workshops 25. Provision of HIV Resource Centre. 26. Sensitization on Affirmative Action for Women 27. Provision of Micro Credit to Women 28. Budget Tracking Workshops 29. Launching of VCT centers and Hotlines in the State In Zamfara State NGOs can be found in different communities set up to work at Local, State and National Levels. This is in recognition of the role they can play in giving useful advises, constructive criticism and sound policy decisions. WHAT ARE THE ROLES PLAYED BY NGOs IN NATIONAL SECURITY Again let us address the term and notion of security and national security before indicating the role the NGOs play in ensuring national Security. In a summary National Security as defined by Wikipedia, the internet encyclopedia refers to the public policy of ensuring the survival and integrity of the nation state through the use of economic, social and military power and the exercise of diplomacy in both peace and war time. The strategy used or employed by the states to protect national security is numerous. They include the use of diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats; marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation of the enemy. Others measures include the use of intelligence and network of agents to depend, defeat or avoid threats and espionage and protect classified information. However, national security does entirely and solely depend on the military power or population of a nation but the social well being of the people of a nation. The components that make up national security include the following: – i. Food security ii. Economic security iii. Political security iv. Social security As indicated above, the notion of national security does not only mean the enforcement of laws and security operations. National security is a collective and relative name. It does not only means enforcement of fear or restoration of Security, but the elimination of all sources of insecurity, which must include the provision of all of the above components. The NGOs helped in no small measure in the maintenance of each of the three mentioned security components. Let us try and list them in this order; i. Food Security: NGO’s most visible role and contribution is in the fight against hunger, unemployment and poverty. They perform so well in these areas by demanding for good policies by governments on the issues of tackling poverty. They help in getting food to the hungry and the needy through humanitarian services, philanthropy, charity and endowments. â€Å"A hungry man they say is indeed an angry man and conversely a source of insecurity†. ii. Economic Security: Through the pursuance of good economic policies by governments the NGOs press for economic reforms and better economic measure to ensure a secure economy that buttress businesses and other economic activities. NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for accountability, transparency and equity by public and private office holders. iii. Political Security: In the public and leadership arena, NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for good governance, democracy and human development. NGOs engage leaders and public office holders by ensuring public based legislation, participation and equal opportunities are provided. v. Social Security: This is one of the most and very important components of national security. Ensuring social cohesion, integration, participation, efficient and adequate distribution of social services and amenities. NGOs also help in the fight for equal opportunities and employment that are integral to their activities not only nationally but also globally. On the health sector the NGOs has reacted to HIV/AIDs, Malaria and Tuberculosis with unprecedented attention and dispatch it deserves. NGOs IN WAR AND PEACE As generally believed, peace is not only the absence of war but a state of maximum security free from all forms of fear. Conversely, there is no security without peace. NGOs offer their services in peacetime and also offer humanitarian services in events of emergencies such as epidemics, earthquakes and other natural or man made disasters. NGOs contribute in no small measure in times of peace and security. This becomes evidently clear in the sense that NGOs themselves help in bridging gaps, resolution of conflicts and public enlightenment on contentious issues. Even though there some NGOs whose formation and activities draws some security concerns, one may hasten to say that those NGOs only strive as a result of inadequate security and failure of governments to provide checks and balances which fuels their existence and increase their activities. These â€Å"NGOs† may include extreme pressure groups, armed freedom fighters, criminal gangs, rebels, cultist, syndicates, cartels, ethnic and racial movements, nationalist fighters, etc. Therefore these organizations should be carefully separated from developmental and progressive NGOs. Even though the above voluntary and community organizations may be initially established or formed by a law abiding community and legally, but later their activities may draw some special concerns, fears and security threats. Generally a good NGO should contribute and argument the effort of their communities, localities, states and nation in their chosen areas of operations. NGOs IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND SECURITY There are numerous NGOs that are found in uniform or out of uniform that help security services in the maintenance of law and order. They participate in confronting emergencies by providing assistants and First Aid support. . g. Red Cross, Red Crescent, Man ‘O’ War Bay, Civil Defense, Volunteer Forces, Scouts, Girls Guide, Boys Brigades, etc. CONCLUSION: One painful fact still remains that security networks and by extension their Governments have not yet recognized and appreciated the huge reserve of knowledge, capacity and resources resident within the voluntary sector that can contribute to their policies and programmes towards National development. On their part, some NGOs underestimated their relevance and the role they can play in National Development and Security through engaging Governments at all levels on all issues. Criticisms of NGOs from some quarters that are either not direct recipient of their services or are ignorant of the role they are playing in national development also abound. They are being called all sorts of names that include; they are self appointed, undemocratic, answer to no constituency, encroaches on National and International laws, long arm of their sponsoring partners, resembles multinationals, chase disasters, proponents of western values, aggressive organizations, extremist, etc. Whatever the criticism, it is evidently clear that nationally and Internationally, political and economic developments has risen with the rise and rise of NGOs, Civil Organizations has become a vital link and force for social change. They put people first before profit; they put food first before reserve or politicking. The bottom line is that, the work of NGOs which is the provision of socio-economic needs of the people as well as caring for their well being are also the key elements in any development and security effort of any nation. The security of people must starts from meeting their human needs. This implies that social amenities such as shelter, education, health and other infrastructural materials and the elimination of economic inequality are part of security. All of the above cannot be secured unless and until we have good governance, democracy, peace, security and sustainable national development. Fortunately, these are exactly what the NGOs are fighting for and were known for globally. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. The Author of the paper holds HND in Printing Technology from Kaduna Polytechnic in 1989. He worked in the private sector and was one time Managing Director Nasiha Professional Printers, Sokoto and Zamfara States. He was also the Press Manager, Mazan – Fara Printing Press, Gusau. He worked in the public sector and was the Chief Superintendent of Press, Survey Division, Ministry of Lands and Survey, Zamfara State. He also served NGOs in different capacities: Executive Member, Muslim Students Society, Kaduna Polytechnic Branch, Secretary General, Joint Youth Islamic Organizations, Zamfara State. Currently he is the Secretary General, Global Network for Islamic Justice, Zamfara State, Executive Director, Partnership for Muslim Health, Zamfara State, Chairman, Coalition of Non-Governmental Organizations, Zamfara State, President, Association of Nigeria Authors, Zamfara State Chapter. He has attended so many seminars and conferences both at national and international levels. The Author is currently employed with the Zamfara State Zakat and Endowment Board, in the position of Director Zakat Collection. SOME ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS USED AAN-Action Aid Nigeria CSACEFA-Civil Society Action Coalition on Education for All. CISHNAN-Civil Society Network on HIV/AIDS. DFID-Department for International Development. SFH-Society for Family Health SACA-State Action Committee on Aids USAID-United State Agency for International Development CODEC-Community Development Centre NACA-National Action Committee on Aids CISCOPE-Civil Society Action Coalition on Poverty Eradication GLONIJ-Global Network For Islamic Justice UNDP-United Nations Development Programme NEEDS-National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy IDASA-Institute of Democracy South Africa. ZASCON-Zamfara State Coalition of NGO’s AAIN-Action Aid International SEEDS-State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy TMG-Transition Monitoring Group PLWHA-People Living with HIV/AIDS CARE-Cooperative Assistant for Relief Everywhere REFERENCE The rise and rise of NGOs – Peter Hall-Jones, Public Services International, May, 2006. NGOs the self appointed altruist – Sam Vakain, Ph. D – 2005 The role of Egypt C. S. O in Development & Reform – USEF Panel Discussion Notes, 2004. Categorizing NGOs; – World Bank Criteria. Towards an enabling legal environment for CSO – Sixteenth Annual John Hopkins International Fellows in Philanthropy Conference, Nairobi, Kenya. NGOs – Wikipeadia; the free encyclopedia. C. S. O & Democratic oversight of the security sector – Macina Caparini, DCAF, International Security Forum Zurich, 2002.

How Does Mccarthy Tell the Story in Pages 229-241?

In this extract, McCarthy conveys the anticlimax of the protagonist and his son’s arrival at the â€Å"Cold. Desolate. Birdless. † environment of the beach. McCarthy juxtaposes the bleakness of the landscape with the boy’s optimism in order to highlight the boy’s inherent goodness. McCarthy tells the story using narrative voice in this section of the text. He contrasts the third person extradiegetic narrator with the man’s interior monologue in order to convey multiple perspectives to the reader. He’d left the cart in the bracken beyond the dunes and they’d taken blankets with them and sat wrapped in them in the wind-shade of a great driftwood log. † Here, McCarthy constructs the lexis of the third person narrator using what some critics have called a limited linguistic palette. The polysyndeton creates a steady rhythm, which parallels the rhythm of the journey the man and boy are on, which is, like the sentence, seemingly never- ending. Here the narrator presents the reader with a practical account of the man and boy’s response to the disappointment of the beach, detailing their movements with unelaborated, unemotional language.The pared back language poignantly conveys the sense that the bleakness of the beach was inevitable. In contrast, the tricolon: â€Å"Cold. Desolate. Birdless†, is clearly the man’s interior monologue. The three adjectives highlight the extent to which the reality of the beach does not live up to the characters’ expectations of it. Where they had hoped for warmth when heading south, instead they found â€Å"cold†. Where they had hoped for a more habitable climate, they found a â€Å"desolate† environment. Where they had hoped for life, they had found a â€Å"birdless† environment.Thus, the tricolon convey’s the man’s disappointment to the reader. McCarthy utilizes stream of consciousness in order to enable the reader to u nderstand the man’s emotional response. The narrator is typically unemotive, presenting a pared back account of events and it is thus these rare glimpses into the man’s thoughts that enable the reader to empathise with his perspective. McCarthy also manipulates language in order to convey the bleakness of the beach. The â€Å"Cold. Desolate. Birdless† beach has a parallel in the â€Å"barren. Silent.Godless† landscape in the novel’s opening pages, creating symmetry in the narrative. Just as the rest of the narrative is permeated with metaphorical â€Å"ash†, so the beach too is describes as â€Å"gray†, with the â€Å"gray squall line of ash†. This lexical clusters connoting decay suggests that the beach, like the rest of the world, has been irreparably tarnished by the apocalypse. The simile, â€Å"like the desolation of some alien sea breaking on the shore† is poignant as the sea is â€Å"alien†, belonging to an other world, highlighting the extent to which the sea has disappointed the man and boy.McCarthy also utilizes structure in order to present this anticlimactic moment to the reader. The writer presents uninterrupted passages of narration and then starkly juxtaposes them with almost two pages of unattributed dialogue between the protagonist and his son. McCarthy presents the unadulterated dialogue without narrator intrusion, bringing the reader closer to the narrative as if they are experiencing the conversation firsthand. Although McCarthy does not explicitly attribute dialogue to either character, the reader has become accustomed to patterns within the speech of each of the characters.This dialogue is to a certain extent typical of the two characters, with the boy expressing his optimism through a series of questions. In spite of the desolation, the boy asks, â€Å"do you think there could be ships out there? † and suggests that other humans could also be â€Å"carrying the fire† in spite of negligible evidence that this could be the case. Furthermore, he suggests that â€Å"maybe there’s a father and his little boy and they’re sitting on the beach†. Through the boy’s dialogue, McCarthy reinforces the sense that the boy could be an â€Å"angel† or a â€Å"god† in his unwavering optimism.

Title Critically discuss the ways UNICEF engage media techniques in their communications’ strategy.

Introduction Communication strategies are designed to help governmental and non-governmental organisations communicate effectively to meet core objectives. In the new digital age, communicating through the media has become an effective way of targeting audiences and persuading them to act by either providing support or giving money (Goodman and Hirsch, 2010: 2). The non-governmental organisation (NGO) UNICEF provides an example of how the effective use of persuasive media techniques in a communications strategy can help to generate capital and support. UNICEF uses a number of different techniques, which all help to raise awareness of the objectives that are trying to be achieved (Dijkzeul and Moke, 2005: 673). With particular focus on children, UNICEF is able to communicate with audiences to obtain humanitarian assistance. A higher degree of financial independence is acquired and subsequently used for humanitarian and development activities (Dijkzeul and Moke, 2005: 673). It is unlikely that such assistance would be obtained without the use of various media techniques. This essay will critically discuss the ways UNICEF engage media techniques in their communications’ strategy. Media Techniques and Political Communications The main objective of most media messages is to persuade or encourage the audience to believe or do something (MLP, 2014: 1). In doing so, a number of different techniques are used to grab the audience’s attention and to establish trust and credibility (Erwin, 2014: 104). One technique that is used by the media is the use of direct quotations from identified sources. This makes the reader believe the story being told and is often used as a powerful motivator to encourage the reader to act, for example, by giving money or purchasing something (MLP, 2014: 1). Where direct quotations are used, it is more likely that the message being conveyed will be successful received as the audience will believe what is being said. Such techniques are referred to as the â€Å"language of persuasion† and are essential media literacy skills (Changing Minds, 2013: 1). This was recognised by Lippmann who believed that persuasion had become a â€Å"self-conscious art and a regular organ of popular government (Denton and Kuypers, 2007: 1). Persuasion is thus a way of creating consent from individuals about a particular premise and is capable of modifying political communications in a very influential way. Unless communications are persuasive, it is doubtful that they will be effective since persuasion is the main communication tool that is required by the media. Governments use persuasion as a means of obtaining consent from the messages being conveyed, also known as political communication. Political communication is considered to have the following four elements; 1) short-term orientation; 2) based upon specific objectives; 3) primarily mediated; and 4) audience centred. Political communication is not exclusive to the political world as non-political actors also use this type of communication as a way of communicating messages to the public. This is generally done by organisations that have a political objective such as; non-governmental organisations (NGO’s). An NGO is an organisation that is separate and distinct from governments and profitable businesses. Although NGO’s can be funded by governments and businesses, they are usually set up by ordinary citizens to further an agenda (Welch, 2000: 1). Whilst the agenda’s of many NGO’s will differ, the methods of communication that are used will be similar in that they will all seek to effectively communicate their objectives to the targeted audience. The primary objective of most NGO’s is to ensure that human rights are being fully protected. Although NGO’s from different jurisdictions will not always have the same goals, they will still be structured in a similar manner. This is because NGO’s generally seek to promote human rights worldwide, which requires them to co-operate with governments and the United Nations (Wong, 2012: 37). NGO’s are also important in helping to bring public interest matters before the courts (Wadham, 2001: 1). The ma ss media is a useful tool that allows political communications of NGO’s to be effectuated, yet social, cultural and psychological problems are usually associated with media content and use (Perse, 2001: 1). It was stressed by Young that modern society engulfs its members through the media, education and participation within the marketplace (Young, 1999: 82). The media is capable of articulating beliefs by adopting various ideological approaches. It has been said by Croteau and Hoynes that the media do not promote a singular perception of ideology and instead communicate a number of different ideological perceptions (Croteau and Hoynes, 2012: 154). They noted that social ideologies are more domineering of society than mainstream ideologies because of the fact that people pay as much attention to street scenes, housing and clothing as they do to the commentary when watching international news (Thompson, 1995: 176). Arguably, it is clear from these assertions that the media is e xtremely powerful in influencing the minds of individuals, which is why it is a form of communication that is commonly used by NGO’s to further their agenda’s. The media is capable of shaping an audiences subjectivity through the representation of ideological belief’s. NGO’s thereby benefit from using media techniques to persuade their targeted audience to act in a certain manner. The media is extremely powerful in persuading the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of society through the use of propaganda. Propaganda is a form of communication that influences an audience to act based on a particular agenda. Propaganda is used as a means of generating emotional responses to messages that are produced to influence societal attitudes towards a particular cause or position. NGO’s often use propaganda to fulfil their objectives and are thus considered effective cultural propaganda disseminators (Cull et al; 2003: 193). NGO’s have been considered politics of the poor on the basis that they represent political ideologies (Karim, 2001: 92). Political ideology is a set of ideas which represent the objectives, expectations and actions of a political party. A broad range of belief systems exist within different political parties and have generally been acquired from doctrines, ideals, myths, principles and social movements. Ideology is a system that is made u p of values and beliefs â€Å"regarding the various institutions and processes of society that is accepted as fact or truth by a group of people† (Sargent, 2008: 2). Political ideology therefore comprises the views of political parties on how the world should be. This allows political parties to allocate social values (Easton, 1971: 129) and determine what is considered an ‘ideal’ world. There are different views and opinions of ideological theory, though ideology is largely driven by competing groups in society who strive for hegemony (Hall, 1997: 13). Hegemony happens when the most dominant in society promotes, through the media and culture, a set of ideals that members of that society must conform to (Allan, 2004: 6). This is beneficial for NGO’s who use the media to establish an ideological perception of the rights in which they are trying to protect. In deciding whether certain behaviours conform to society, the set of ideals that have been created wi thin that society will need to be considered by the media when deciding what messages need to be conveyed. Many believe that this is unfair and problematic as ideology only serves the interests of one segment of society over all other segments (Curra, 2000: 6). This prejudices many parts of society as certain groups may not benefit from the established ideals that are created. As pointed out by Brown et al; ideology may only be beneficial to certain ethnic groups, genders or religions (Brown et al; 2010: 9). This does not provide an accurate reflection of the whole of society and whilst ideals are necessary in helping people to identify what is right and wrong, it seems unacceptable to segregate certain parts of society. This may, however, be necessary when protecting the rights of certain individuals. Political ideologies are subject to further critique on the basis that they do not consider the needs of modern society (Stankiewicz, 2012: 408), yet as pointed out by Selinger; †Å"There is no politics without ideology† (Selinger, 1975: 99). In effect, this appears to demonstrate that all political communications will have some element of ideology as moral judgements will be contained within them. Effectively, the objectives of NGO’s will be based upon ideological beliefs and will mostly have a political objective. An example of this can be seen in relation to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), which is an NGO that provides humanitarian and development assistance to mothers and children in underdeveloped countries. The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) created UNICEF on the 11th December 1946 to provide food and healthcare to children that had been affected by World War II. Although UNICEF is not operated by the government, it like many other NGO’s largely relies upon governmental support and political communications. NGO’s have, for some time, relied upon the mass media to expose violations of human-rights and encourage governments to put pressure on those found to be abusing them (Thrall et al; 2014: 3). This is intended to discourage human rights abuses from taking place and to help the perpetrators be put to justice. The effectiveness of this is arguable, though it seems as though greater support is being acquired by the likes of UNICEF as a result of this. Since the advancement of modern technology UNICEF is now able to establish new communication strategies for channeling information politics via the internet (Chadwick and Phillip, 2008: 3). It is arguable whether the strategies that are being undertaken by UNICEF are effective in persuading audiences to support their cause, though it seems likely given UNICEF’s use of the med ia. The media is largely proficient in influencing society of certain ideological perceptions through television programmes, newspapers, magazines, films and radio programmes (Long and Wall, 2009; 285). These forms of communication are used in a way that manipulates societal values and beliefs and will continue to influence the ways in which we think about things whether consciously or subconsciously (Kenix, 2010: 1). Not only does the media send out ideological messages to the public but media systems have also been intertwined into society’s ideological framework. This highlights the power of the media in shaping individuals values and beliefs within society. UNICEF’s campaigns are mainly in the form of mass media, radio programmes, posters, street plays and localised outreach (UNICEF, 2014: 1). Because of this, a wider range of support will be acquired. UNICEF is reaching out to a broader audience, which will generate a huge amount of support and funding that would not otherwise be available. Arguably, it is imperative that the media techniques being used in UNICEF’s communications strategy are effective in helping to shape ideological views on the rights of children. UNICEF is an advocate of children’s rights and so it is necessary for UNICEF to communicate how these rights are being violated and what protections need to be in place. This will help UNICEF to gain support and the message UNICEF is trying to put across will be better received by the public. Communications Strategy The communications strategy of UNICEF is vital in strengthening human development and avoiding missed opportunities. An ineffective communications strategy will generally yield poor results and stifle the development of UNICEF (UNDP, 2014: 1). UNICEF’s targeted audience will not receive the message that is being portrayed. This will prevent UNICEF from developing, which will impact its success.. Effective communications are important skills NGO’s need to survive and be successful (KDID, 2013: 28). To make an impact, UNICEF will thus be required to use effective means of communication to ensure that their views and opinions are heard. In doing so, they will most likely face a number of difficult challenges because of the fact that it has become increasingly difficult to deliver to society complex humanitarian crises. It is also difficult to explain to society who is involved in certain humanitarian crisis’ because of how widespread they generally are (ICRC, 2005: 673). A huge amount of NGO’s currently strive for media attention, thereby highlighting the need to have effective communication strategies in place (Thrall et al; 2014: 19). UNICEF must adopt a coherent and credible approach when conveying public communication so that its message can be heard. It has been said that in order to understand political communication, one must understand how consent is created (Denton and Kuypers, 2007: 1). UNICEF will thus be required to communicate messages in a way that allows consent to be obtained, which will need to be included within the communications strategy of UNICEF. A good communications strategy will help to certify good organisational branding and positioning, which will help to attract staff, donors and volunteers (KDID, 2013: 28). Successful branding through media communications will put an NGO in a desirable position within the community, which will help to garner support and belief from the public. This will require NGO’s to be completely transparent so that the messages in which they are trying to put across can be clearly communicated (Thrall et al; 2014: 19). Unless UNICEF adopts a transparent and clear approach, it will be difficult to gain support and belief from the public (Lilleker, 2006: 4). Public support is, however, crucial to the implementation of change (Rabinowitz, 2013: 3). Without public support, it is doubtful that UNICEF would be as successful as they are. It is debatable what the best techniques for gaining public support are, though an effective communications strategy that takes into account UNICEF’s agenda and identifies points that will require persuasive communication will most likely prove successful. It is important that the communications strategy identifies the appro aches and tools that are needed to make a particular event more effective. In developing a communications strategy, it first needs to be established what UNICEF is trying to achieve. Subsequently, it will then need to be considered what communications objectives will most likely support the objectives of the project (McManus, 1994: 58). The communications objectives of UNICEF will be those that are capable of being reached through various means of communications. Such objectives will also need a target audience. This will require UNICEF to consider who they are trying to reach. In reaching out to the target audience, UNICEF will need to develop appropriate messages which highlight the relevant issues; the actions that needs to be taken by the target audience; and the benefits of such action (KDID, 2013: 28). Once this has been done, UNICEF will then have to consider how these messages will be delivered. Different methods of communication will be considered depending upon the type of event that is being promoted such as; media conferences, social media, interviews, marketing, advertisements and news stories. Given that UNICEF targets underdeveloped countries, it is likely that difficulties will be faced when considering the political objectives of various countries. Political communications are likely to vary from one country to another, which will create a number of problems. An effective communications strategy will seek to address these difficulties, though it will remain arguable whether they will prove sufficient in achieving certain objectives (Thrall et al; 2014: 19). In Africa, for example, the media seems to control those in power by reporting to citizens. Whilst this demands a degree of institutional independence from the political system, it has been said that there is actually a â€Å"clear interdependence between the media and political systems† (Windeck, 2014: 17). Information from political systems is usually exchanged for coverage in the media system and vice versa. The media consequently rely heavily on the supply of information from politics, whilst political bod ies rely on the media to spread their messages and objectives (Windeck, 2014: 17). Political communication is an important tool in the political process, and will continue to influence politics. In effect, the political communications of certain countries will be driven by cultural and political factors, which may be difficult to overcome. Female genital mutilation is one area that UNICEF continues to campaign against, but is faced with many political objections from countries where FGM is prevalent; Asia, the Middle East and some parts of Africa (Gaber, 2007: 219). UNICEF are resultantly required to implement a strategy that is capable of strengthening the political commitment of governments. UNICEF’s Communications Strategy There are three components of communication that are used by UNICEF to garner support and funding. These are; advocacy, social mobilisation and behaviour change communication (UNICEF, 2008: 7). Advocacy is used to inform and motivate leadership so that a supportive environment can be created. This will allow the objectives and development goals of the program to be achieved. Social mobilisation seeks to engage support and participation from various institutions, social and religious groups, and community networks. It is intended that the development objectives of UNICEF will be maintained through the use of social mobilisation and that greater demand will be generated. Behaviour change communication involves face to face discussions with a number of individuals and groups to motivate, inform, plan and problem-solve. It is anticipated that by using this technique, the objectives of UNICEF can be met (UNICEF, 2008: 7). Various conceptual models are used by UNICEF to implement communica tion including ACADA, P-Process and COMBI. The ACADA (Assessment, Communication Analysis, Design, Action) model is frequently used by UNICEF to use systematically-gathered data to link communications strategies to development problems. The P-Process model, developed by The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health/Center for Communication Programs (CCP), is used for the strategic planning of evidence based communication programmes and contains the following five steps; 1) analysis, 2) strategic design, 3) development and testing, 4) implementation and monitoring, and 5) evaluation and re-planning (UNICEF, 2008: 7). The COMBI model uses a ten step process for communication planning, which are; 1) overall goal, 2) behavioural results/objectives, 3) situational market analysis, 4) results strategy, 5) plan of action, 6) management structure, 7) monitoring, 8) impact assessment, 9) scheduling, and 10) budget (UNICEF, 2008: 7). All three of these models seek to establish an effective communications strategy by analysing the different approaches that can be taken and considering the necessary steps needed. Analysis is integral to an effective communications strategy as it will enable any underlying issues to be identified and thereby dealt with accordingly. UNICEF undertakes a comprehensive analysis comprising of; the situation, the programme, the participants, the behaviours, and the communication channels (UNICEF, 2008: 7). The situation section describes the issues that are being addressed by UNICEF such as; child poverty, disease, malnutrition and trafficking. This is based upon data that has be en collected from local knowledge, programme documents and research. The data highlights the underlying social and cultural issues by demonstrating what changes need to be made to social structures and practices. The programme section is designed to establish where the objectives of UNICEF can be achieved by communication. The participant section establishes what people are required to achieve UNICEF’s objectives. The behaviour section focuses on setting behavioural objectives and analysing the behaviours or practices that have been selected for change. Finally, the communication channels section considers the available communication channels that are applicable in achieving the objectives. Once the analysis has been completed, UNICEF will have identified the participants, behaviours and channels of communications that are needed to encourage audience participation and accomplish its goals (UNICEF, 2008: 7). In order to ensure that the objectives of UNICEF are being met by changing the attitude and behaviour of individuals, knowledge alone will not be sufficient. Instead, a supportive environment will also need to be established (UNICEF, 2008: 37). Therefore, whilst the communications strategy of UNICEF will need to instil knowledge into the community so that support can be acquired, a supportive environment will also need to be created. This will involve creating policies that improve access to services and by using leaders that help to promote social and behaviour change amongst various members of society. Resources will also need to be allocated for the programme activities that are to be carried out and positive change will be effectuated by using a combination of communication techniques. UNICEF believes that communication goes way beyond providing information to the targeted audience and instead argue that communication is vital for development (Dijkzeul and Moke, 2005: 673). UNICE F has therefore set up a development programme, also known as C4D, which aims to engage communities through understanding people’s beliefs, values and social and cultural norms (Lenni and Tacchi, 2013: 16). This is achieved from listening to adults and children, identifying issues and working out solutions. This is considered a two way process that allows individuals to share knowledge and ideas through the use of various communication techniques that empower communities to take action in improving the lives of children (Lenni and Tacchi, 2013: 16). Advocacy is one technique UNICEF engages in its communications strategy, which is the â€Å"act of supporting a cause to produce a desired change† (Save the Children, 2014: 1). Advocacy is capable of influencing governments to effect change by communicating with the media, elected officials and influential leaders. Advocacy is able to encourage leaders to implement various changes such as; legal reform, policy decisions, addressing social and political barriers, and altering funding priorities. Advocacy efforts being used by UNICEF occur at global, national and sub-level and seek to influence the decisions of policy makers as well as political and social leaders. This is done through the creation of an enabling policy and legislative environment and by allocating resources appropriately to create and sustain social transformation (UNICEF, 2011: 1). For example, in 2010 when polio resurfaced in the Democratic Republic of Congo, there existed a lack of awareness of the disease and how it could be prevented. Influential leaders, such as Marco Kiabuta, did not believe that the vaccination of polio was necessary. After a number of debates with community mobilisers and leaders Kiabuta came to realise just how vital a vaccination was. This example demonstrates how effective communication techniques ca n make a huge difference in implementing change and possibly saving lives (UNICEF, 2011: 1). Advocacy is used by UNICEF to target political, business and social leaders at national and local levels. It is not used simply to create mass awareness but is also used as a means of generating change and leading to a specific action that is to be taken (UNICEF, 2010: 20). UNICEF uses advocacy to inform and motivate appropriate leaders to create a supportive environment by changing polices, speaking out on critical issues, allocating resources and initiating public discussion. Communication is a powerful tool, which is why it is important for various media techniques to be adopted by NGO’s such as UNICEF. Social mobilisation is another method of communication that is used by UNICEF to enlist participants, community networks, and religious groups to strengthen participation in various activities. This helps to engage and motivate partners and allies to raise awareness of UNICEFâ€℠¢s development objectives through face-to-face dialogue. Partners and allies subsequently work together to target audiences and convey certain messages. Social mobilisation is used as a way to facilitate change through a range of players that are engaged in interrelated and complementary efforts (UNICEF, 2012: 1). An example of this can be seen in relation to the training community health workers in Madagascar received from UNICEF. The health workers were trained to provide outreach to families on various issues including, hand washing, vaccinating children, and not defecating in the open (UNICEF, 2012: 1). This is clearly an effective communication technique that is used by UNICEF as it allows certain individuals to be trained up so that they can pass their knowledge onto others. This has a domino like effect and will enable the views of UNICEF to be conveyed to a wider audience than that which would have been possible through advertisements alone. Social mobilisation is therefore an effective way of spreading messages to targeted audiences and helping to achieve the objectives of UNICEF, which is to provide assistance to mothers and children in underdeveloped countries. Behaviour change communication is another method that is used to address knowledge, attitudes and practices that are linked to programme goals. This is done by providing participants with â€Å"relevant information and motivation through well-defined strategies, using an audience-appropriate mix of interpersonal, group and mass media channels and participatory methods† (UNICEF/INDA, 2012, 1). Behaviour change communication strategies focus on the individual to effect change. In order for behavioural changes to happen on a larger scale, social change communication needs to be employed. This technique helps to define and address social influences in life and is currently being employed by UNICEF through the Social Ecological Model framework† (UNICEF/INDA, 2012, 1). The media techni ques that are currently being used by UNICEF do appear effective in helping to persuade audiences to provide support. The more UNICEF does to spread its message, the more successful UNICEF will be in achieving its aims. The Meena Communication Initiative in South Asia gives an example of how mass media and interpersonal communication is used to enhance the self-esteem and self-worth of children by enabling them to become familiar with life skills that are essential empowerment tools. The programme is primarily school based and is centred around a nine-year old girl called Meena who seeks to fight against the stigma that surrounds HIV/AIDS (UNICEF/INDA, 2012, 1). A radio station called ‘Meena Radio’ was launched in 2010 to communicate with children, their parents, educators and community leaders. This provides an effective means of communication and provides a platform for UNICEF’s political beliefs to be heard. It is intended that the radio station’s audience will be persuaded to act so that the voices of children and communities can be heard through the power of communication. This helps to promote child survival, development, protection and participation (UNICEF, 2014: 1 ). It is clear that UNICEF uses a number of different media techniques in its communications strategy to achieve its objectives. Without the use of such techniques, the voices of children and communities would not be heard and UNICEF’s message would not be delivered to its intended audience. It has been said that UNICEF â€Å"raises considerable funds and carries out strong communication on its own through its national committees, press centre and media team† (Dijkzeul and Moke, 2005: 683). This signifies the importance of having an effective communications strategy is in place as it can generate a significant amount of funding that would not otherwise be available. UNICEF also uses high profile figures to be its ambassadors who have been considered a highly effective in persuading society (Stromback, 2011: 42). Conclusion Overall, an effective communication strategy in an important tool for helping governmental and non-governmental organisations communicate effectively to meet core objectives. Given that UNICEF relies on voluntary donations from members of the public, government departments, charitable trusts and event organisers, it is important that they are capable of successfully communicating their objectives. In doing so, they will be required to persuade or encourage their audiences to provide support or funding so that UNICEF’s end goals can be achieved. Given that UNICEF uses a number of different media techniques in its communications strategy, the approach that is currently being undertaken does appear workable. The media is a powerful tool in the art of persuasion, which is what UNICEF needs in order to survive. The use of media techniques will help to raise awareness of UNICEF’s objectives and obtain humanitarian assistance. It is unlikely that such assistance would be obtai ned without the use of various media techniques, which is why UNICEF’s communications strategy does appear largely effective. References Allan, S. (2004), News Culture. Bukingham: Open University Press. Changing Minds. (2013). Persuasive Language, [Online], Available: http://changingminds.org/techniques/language/persuasive/persuasive.htm [07 July 2014]. Chadwick, A. and Phillip, H. (2008). 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(2010) Corporate Communications: Strategic Adaptation for Global Practice, New York: Business & Economics. Hall, S. (1997). Representation Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. London: Sage. ICRC. (2005). Public Communication Strategies of International Humanitarian Organizations. International Review of the Red Cross, Volume 87, Number 860, 673-691. Karim, L. (2001). Politics of the PoorNGSs and Grass-Roots Political Mobilization in Bangladesh. Political and Legal Anthropology Review, Volume 24, Issue 1, 92-93. KDID. (2013). Develop a Communications Strategy for Your NGO, Communications and Media Relations, Civic Activits Toolkit, [Online] Available: http://kdid.org/sites/kdid/files/28.%20Develop%20a%20Communications%20Strategy%20for%20Your%20NGO.pdf [08 July 2014]. Lennie, J. and Tacchi, J. (2013) Evaluating Communication for Development: A Framework for Social Change, London: Routledge. Lilleker, D. (2006). Key Concepts in Political Communication. London: Sage Communications. Long, P., and Wall, T. (2009). Media Studies: Texts, Production and Context, London: Longman, 1st Edition. McManus, J. (1994). Market Driven Journalism. London: Sage. MLP. (2014). Language of Persuasion, [Online], Available: http://medialiteracyproject.org/language-persuasion [07 July 2014]. Oxfam. (2004). Towards global equity: Strategic Plan 2001-2004, [Online], Available: [07 July 2014]. Thrall, T. Stecula, D. and Sweet, D. (2014) May We Have Your Attention PleaseHuman-Rights NGO’s and the Problem of Global Communication, International Journal of Press/Politics, Volume 19, No. 1. Rabinowitz, P. (2013) Gaining Public Support for Addressing Community Health and Development Issues, Community Tool Box, [Online] Available: http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/assessment/getting-issues-on-the-public-agenda/gain-public-support/main [14 July 2014]. Sargent, L. T. (2008). Contemporary Political Ideologies: A Comparative Analysis (14th Edition). London: Cengage Learning. Save the Children. (2014). Advocacy Techniques, [Online] Available: http://www.savethechildren.org/site/c.8rKLIXMGIpI4E/b.6152765/ [10 July, 2014]. Thrall, T. Stecula, D. and Sweet, D. (2014). May We Have Your Attention PleaseHuman-Rights NGO’s and the Problem of Global Communications. The International Journal of Press/Politics, Volume 19, Issue 3, 135-159. Selinger, M. (1976). Ideology and Politics. London: George Allen Unwin Ltd. Stankiewickz, W. J. (2012). In Search of a Political Philosophy: Ideologies at the Close of the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge. Stromback, J. (2011). Political Public Relations: Principles and Applications. New York: Taylor & Francis. UNDP., (2014). ‘Developing a Communications Strategy’ [09 July 2014]. Wadham, J. (2001). The Human Rights Act: Sufficient ProtectionNew Law Journal, 151 NLJ 1411, Issue 7001, 109-114. UNICEF Staff. (2010). UNICEF Annual Report 2009 London, UNICEF. UNICEF. (2011). 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Electronic communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Electronic communication - Essay Example This paper outlines categorically some examples that will help highlight the latter issue for ease of understanding. Basically, there are three types of electronic communications. These include: This is basically the simplest type of electronic communication and whereby transfer of messages is towards one direction at a time. In other words, the communication is one-way. Examples of such communication are: personal receiver (beeper), TV broadcasting and radio. A policy is typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. A policy can be considered as a "Statement of Intent" or a "Commitment." For that reason at least, the decision-makers can be held accountable for their "Policy", (Paquette 200). Policies are therefore normally meant to ensure conformance with set objectives and in the case of electronic communication, one of the major issue of concern is privacy and security of communication. Electronic communication, unlike other forms of communication, poses great challenges to both the communicators and the communication service providers on how to ensure security of the messages. Another issue concerning use of electronic communication is its ability to bear legal value in that there have been issues on whether or not agreement reached using electronic communication can have evidential value (Madeline 198). There are, therefore, several policies governing use of electronic communication. One of the international policies on electronic communication is the New World Information Communication Order (NWICO). This is a UNESCO agency formed in the mid 1970s with the aim of bringing balance in world information flow (communication). NWICO was out to facilitate economic growth in the developing or third world countries by improving the communication system. According to it, free information flow encouraged economic development but was lacking in

Applying Theory to Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Applying Theory to Practice - Essay Example Experience has convinced me that my singular performance alone would not allow me to manage pain effectively. The policy makers and all the staff have to be convinced about the management plan. A team management of pain is now better accepted (Zalon et al, 2008). A comprehensive plan would be set up for systematic and uniform management of pain in the hospital. Care from initial assessment to planning for discharge would be incorporated. Competency of the staff would be ensured through continuing education. All nurses would have laminated pocket cards with FACES scale and numerical scale for analyzing the pain by the scales (Bines & Paice, 2005). If the card showed an intensity of ‘four† on the scale, intervention was made. Including pain as another vital sign would produce awareness of the distress and decide whether it was time for intervention. A series of questions would be added to the inpatient and outpatient forms so that the features of the pain would be elicited (Bines & Paice, 2005). Electronic devices would be in place for reminding the nurses about the time for reassessment of pain. Screening for pain and assessing its nature and intensity would be an essential step. Details of the pain and how it had affected the patient would be recorded. The patient would be needed to provide informed consent and participate in deciding the individual care plan for pain management. The pain would be assessed carefully and managed appropriately in order to uphold the patients’ rights (Bines & Paice, 2005). The goals for relief of pain must be ascertained. Realistic and safe goals would be identified. The patient would be asked about the activities or functions that he would like to do or perform when he had no pain. Enquiring about the patient satisfaction would provide information and experience of the best techniques to manage pain in a similar situation later. Non-pharmacological management simultaneously would add to the satisfaction level ( Hardy, 2011). The patient and the family would be given educative material to familiarize themselves with the plan. This information would help them gain knowledge on the procedures adopted in my institution. They would be reassured about the competency of the staff which also included pain specialists (Bines & Paice, 2005). Their fears about whether staff would believe the patient and respond immediately would be dispelled. The patient’s fears about opioids would be carefully managed. Publishing the information on the internet would help the staff to download it for the patients. Pain-related information would be maintained at the Health Library in the hospital. Computers would be available for patients and families to browse for the information (Bines & Paice, 2005). The pharmacological therapy with opioids or NSAIDs would be decided upon by the uniform recommendations of the hospital. The variation in dosage would be by variation of age of the patient, the type of wound, t he intensity of pain, the hospital procedure done, the surgery performed and the underlying illnesses. Non-pharmacological adjuvants which could provide relaxing moments would include visual stimuli like photos or pictures or a television programme (Bines & Paice, 2

Admission essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Admission - Essay Example m my work experiences and my educational career at Tarrant County College that group synergy translates into outstanding work performance and maximum satisfaction for the participants of the group. I have work on several projects as an undergraduate student in which have displayed the ability to interpret both qualitative and quantitative information. I have always had a passion for math, science, and field work. The discipline of electrical engineering provides a good mix of office and outdoor work. It is important always to work cohesively as team to achieve the optimum results. I like designing work. I understand that it takes hard work and dedication to achieve the disciplined required to become an engineer. I have always tried my best at everything life since it perseverance shows true character. Obtaining the educational attainment of an electrical engineering degree is my ultimate professional goal which I planned to achieving by enrolling in a top engineering school. The world has become a place where the interrelations among nations have become imperative in order for people to survive. The continent on earth that is behind all other in terms of social economical progress is the continent of Africa. I was born and raised in the nation of Sudan. As an African is my obligation to better myself in order to help my families and my people. Africa is one of the poorest nations in the world. In order to improve the well being of a nation education must be a top priority. In Africa only 57% of children are enrolled in primary school and only one in three does not complete school (Fightpoverty, 2006). I want to become a part of the movement and participation needed to change Africa forever. There needs to be a commitment from the private and public section to dramatically increase the investment in education to reach larger sectors of the population. In order to improve the standard of living of Africans we need to build better basic infrastructure such as roads,

DB6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

DB6 - Essay Example rol of Spanish possessions in the Caribbean such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and other islands, but as the war expanded so would the remit of the Monroe Doctrine. The United States would gain control of the Philippines, far from its own shore, and attempt to remake the Spanish colonialism political system in its own image. The result would be a bloody conflict fought with Filipino insurgents that would take America many years to quell. As the decades went by and American became more involved in its own neighbourhood, this conflict would play a very influential role. America would not focus on building local capacity and democracy, but would instead treat Puerto Rico and Cuba effectively as colonies. Following the American victory over Spain and the taking of the Philippines, there was a great deal of tension between the U.S. and the locals. This came to a head in 1899 when American soldiers shot some Filipinos. Things quickly got out of hand with both sides raising armies and fighting conventional wars. The Americans rapidly defeated the conventional Filipino forces, killing two of their best generals and pacifying many of the urban areas. During this period, the President appointed distinguished Americans to investigate conditions in the Philippines and report back on ways to improve the administration of the country. This report would have a significant impact on the way America viewed Puerto Rico and Cuba in turn. The first Commission’s report was a rejoinder to those who argued America had no place in the world: Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, self-governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the

Quality of Society and Leaders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Quality of Society and Leaders - Essay Example But, either these two are dependent on each other is a different concept than measurement. Therefore, this essay focuses on a phenomenon to identify that either quality of society is dependent on the quality of its leader, which is very minimal (Robert & Matsumiya, 2007, p. 10). 1.2 The quality of a society depends upon the quality of its leaders Quality cannot be quantified. There can be changes in the society. Research indicated that these changes arise due to the changing political conditions. There are many factors due which leaders are unable to affect the quality of society (Williamson, 2010, p. 555). Leaders are unable to affect the quality of society due to the following three reasons i.e.: society shapes the potential leaders society itself chooses a leader society itself determines the limit of change in its quality Society shapes the potential leaders Society influences the development of leaders and prevents them from affecting the quality of a society. It is the society who influences the individuals not the leaders. Societal environment, individual action and structure, all these work together (Bunge, 1997, p.420). They are the forms of one another. Leaders are included in these individual who lives in a society, therefore they are also influenced from the quality of society. But some leader who has stronger potential can resist the influence of society. This combination of influence from society and leaders is hard to resist. Whether a leader is strong or weak, but they are mainly shaped by the society. This means that society itself chooses and shapes a leader; this means it cannot gain a person with some differentiated skills. Therefore, societies cannot rely on these leaders to change its quality. Society itself chooses a leader Mainly society itself chooses a leader. Therefore it reduces the chances of getting a leader with some different and innovative qualities, it chooses a leader who have same qualities that of former. This is done throug h modern politics i.e. a leader is selected on the basis of elections. Societies mainly choose those leaders, which reflect their quality and are quite similar to it, rather than selecting such leaders who have different qualities as compared to the quality of a particular society. This phenomenon have not been promoted in this modern world, it was present late back in 16th century i.e. only those individuals were selected as a leader who had similarity with the quality of a society (Nietzsche, 1983). Even if a leader retires, he is replaced by a person who has similar qualities as that of former. This means it does not resist any change in the quality of leadership. For instance, in 1848, French Revolution people selected a new regime on the basis of volunteer, which was similar to the older one. This revolution did not lead to achievement of its goals (Marx, 1969). Removal of the regime indicated that there wasn’t a change in leadership but there was a change in the quality of society. In case if the quality of society do not change even after replacing a leader, it indicates that quality of society is not dependent on the quality of leaders. Society itself determines the limit of change in its quality In case if a leader with different quality is considered and selected for a society. It blocks the way of leaders to implement any change by allocating limits. Following a different virtue is difficult for the society and in case if it does not value that, it will

Naturalistic Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Naturalistic Philosophy - Essay Example Plot characters development showed the degree of control that man had over their destiny. American realizes that the power of outside forces is what limited humanity’s freedom of choice, to them individuals had no choice since their lives dedicated to only hereditary and external environment. To naturalists, humanity was helpless and wholly dependent on nature’s favors. American naturalism got to its peak at around the beginning of the nineteenth century. Charles Darwin’s theory of phylogeny also played a great role. Malcolm Cowley states that years between the first and second world wars were a flourishing time for the American writers. American literature had attained a new maturity and an abundant diversity. Marked by the publication of several works? It was at this time that memorable works published though they were not up to standard an excellent number became influential and were later in time criticized. Most novels that were written around this time majorly based on the war that had just ended. It was only by means of civil war that the young country could achieve both unification and peace. Stephen Cranes, The Red Badge of Courage, illustrates an actual description of fighting in the civil war that ended up leading their country to victory. Novels about the war have been the most reliable ways of writing about the war life. Some permeated with a lot of protests, therefore, they were named war books in general. In the history of America, war writings are considered to have taken a greater part of the portion when all books put together. It was around this time that Stephen Crane’s The Red Budge was written and published for the first time. Its location is the battlefield, Crane attempted to explain and draw the picture of what was happening during the war and in the lives of the soldiers.  

Need to come up with one from you Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Need to come up with one from you - Essay Example The first microscopes enabled the human eye to magnify an object up to 20-30 times but today a microscope can magnify an object up to 1500 times. With the invention of microscopes, the vision changed and it opened the doors to many other associated fields of inventions (Wilkin, 1911). Micro organisms were studied and cellular structures were discovered. Biological uses include tissue and cell analysis to examine for any diseases in the body, whereas in modern times, it is also used to see finger prints for evidence collection at a crime sight. Not only this, several enhancements were made to the original microscope including Compound Microscopes, Transmission Electron Microscopes, Scanning Electron microscopes and Dissection Microscopes (Strain, 2006). Later, when the curiosity to know more about the universe around us grew, telescopes were invented which changed the lives drastically. As the first step, the depressions on the surface of moon were noticed, the sunspots, the rings of the Saturn and the moons of the Jupiter were discovered using a telescope. Not only this but scientific reasoning methods, mathematical laws and logics were applied to understand how the universe works, which laid the foundations of modern astronomy. An exceptional discovery was made by Galileo about the surface of moon which was previously considered as smooth (Wilkin, 1911). He discovered that there are dark areas and shadows on the moon which change in accordance to the positioning of the sun. He concluded that these shadows were the craters and mountains on the surface of moon. Another stunning discovery was made by the use of telescopes that there are four large moons around Jupiter which also rotate. Later, Sir Issac Newton proposed the usage of a curved mirror instead of glass lens in the telescope. Soon after, in the seventeenth century binoculars were designed based on the idea of telescopes. Camera Obscura (the dark chamber) was used

Emerency Sevices Managment - Advaced Interactions of Hazardous Research Paper

Emerency Sevices Managment - Advaced Interactions of Hazardous Materials VIII - Research Paper Example investigations like that from T2 laboratories, it becomes evident that the incident was preventable if the laboratory had instituted precautionary measures. Before a factory begins preparing or using any hazardous chemical like methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl or methyl mercaptan, thorough literature review about the chemical should be carried out (Bevelacqua, 2006). Information such as whether the substance is poisonous, flammable, corrosive or oxidizer should be obtained. Besides, the threshold limit and the IDHL values are determined. The IDHL values for chlorine (10 ppm in air) is far below that of methyl mercaptan (150 ppm in air) indicating that chlorine is more poisonous than methyl mercaptan. The factory is supposed to prepare a list of the dangerous chemicals they are handling and the possible dangers likely posed by those chemicals. The list and the risk management plan are submitted to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The risk management plan should contain information about; prevention measures, site activities, action taken in case of an emergency and any plan to improve on safety (Bevelacqua, 2006). T2 laboratory did not have a risk management plan and had not registered with the Environmental Protection Agency. If T2 had complied with this requirement, the runaway exothermic reaction would have been prevented because T2 would have received proper advice from EPA. Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) should be done to determine the particular step in the production process associated with a hazard. T2 noted that an exothermic reaction occurred during the first step (metalation), heat release in the second and the third reaction step was overlooked. In additi on, the laboratory did not carry out hazard and operability study (HAZOP) when they scaled up. Conditions for small scale production may differ with those for large-scale production. It was mandatory for a T2 lab to assess the risks involved in a large scale production of

Submitted Resume and Cover Letter Essay Example for Free

Submitted Resume and Cover Letter Essay Dear Customer: Regarding your kindly submitted resume and cover letter, please review the following suggested empowerments: Selection of a strong font, supplementing this with varying sizes for headings and body, bolding, and bullets. Use a strong letterhead style for the cover letter. Use the maximum effect of white page and dark print contrasts. Add a very strong, empowering Objective that targets the specific career position(s) that you want – one to three specific careers or job titles. Add an Executive Summary. Add a Qualifications section Addition of strong skills statements and strong verbs. Add specific numbers for accomplishments, including estimated dollars saved or increased in sales, percentages of time, number of new products/ processes designed, etc. Add an Educations and Certifications section to include any licenses or certificates or any training courses that are relevant. Add volunteer work if you have performed such. Add a Special Skills section to include computer programs and software known, various equipment, any foreign languages (reading, writing, or fluent), and/or other skills that others candidates applying for these types of jobs you target may not have and which can make you a standout job candidate. Use bullet points and more powerful specific language in the cover letter as a sharp, eye-catching appeal to new employers. Thank you for the opportunity to review your resume and cover letter. Best regards.

Motivations of Counselling and Therapy Professions

Motivations of Counselling and Therapy Professions A friend in need is a pain indeed. With bumper stickers like that, it is hardly surprising that people might wonder about the counselling and therapy professions: Why would anyone in their right mind want to spend their working days listening to other peoples tales of woe, whether stranger, friend or foe? Is the desire borne of altruism, voyeurism, narcissism, masochism, egoism or some other ism? Could it be based in guilt, power, control, compassion, inferiority, a passion for puzzle solving, an urge to rescue or unmet intimacy needs? After all, the saying says you teach best what you most need to learn. Many therapists and counsellors may well be trying to work out their own stuff and that may even be useful if it is accepted that the person, self and psyche of the practitioner is an integral part of their working day. However, the so-called wounded healer must be extremely careful to ensure their own stuff does not get in the way of the job: To help their clients help themselves. This paper will review literature related to the reasons people select a career in counselling or therapy. While some authors group counselling and psychotherapy the so-called fifth profession others lump together social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists and/or psychoanalysts. For the purposes of brevity, this paper will use the word therapist to refer to counsellors and psychotherapists, as does apparently much of the literature. To limit the scope of the review, it does not include literature focused on specific fields or client groups, such as school counselling. As most in-depth research related to professional motivations was undertaken before the 1980s when the social and professional landscape was considerably different most of the material reviewed has been written in the past decade as much refers to the earlier sources anyway. The major work in the field a classic two-volume study on the career determinants of psychotherapists by Henry, Sims, and Spray is more than 30 years old. While some more recent books touch on the topic through the personal stories of working therapists, new research is surprisingly scant. Various studies and surveys show the most common reason given for studying counselling or therapy as the predictable I want to help people but that is just the tip of the iceberg. As Farber and Northcross (2005) point out, the decision is not as simple as that and involves many conscious and unconscious motives, a little bit of chance and the real reason may not even be fully known until late in a therapists career. Motivations seem rarely discussed in mental health journals or coursework and are more likely to arise in informal conversations or therapy sessions (Farber Northcross, 2005). The question as to why the profession seems so uninterested in its own motivations would, in itself, be worthy of exploration. Sussman, through his 2007 book, and Barnett, in her journal article the same year, provide more recent insights into the unconscious motivations of those who choose to train and work as therapists. Sussman contends that the decision to become a psychotherapist involves multiple factors, some healthy and others neurotic (or psychotic), with motives and personality patterns deeply rooted in the therapists developmental past and the dynamics of the family of origin (Sussman, 2007). Barnetts study of therapists unconscious motivations for their choice of profession arose from her observation of the recent substantial increase in the number of counselling courses on offer and the number of people wishing to become counsellors and psychotherapists. In her interviews with nine experienced psychoanalytic and psychodynamic psychotherapists about their professional and personal histories, Barnett noted two major themes of early loss and narcissistic needs, emphasising the need for personal therapy for safe and effective practice. Farber, Manevich, Metzger Saypol (2005) took a two-pronged approach to the question, Why do people become psychotherapists?, by looking both at common elements and specific factors. Interestingly, the approach is similar to efforts in identifying the factors effecting psychotherapeutic change (Imel Wampold, 2008). Several distinct themes recur throughout the literature but most authors seem to agree that no single factor is responsible for a persons motivation to become a therapist. Just as the nurture or nature debate is inconclusive, so too may be the question of professional motivation. On the whole, two broad factors seem to draw therapists to the profession: Personal needs, whether conscious or unconscious; and the possession of attributes or talents lending themselves to the therapeutic role. Themes While a therapists personality naturally influences theoretical orientation and techniques, the emphasis on therapist variables in outcome research does not help explain what initially attracts people to the profession. A common theme in the literature is that of cultural or social marginalisation, the external counterpart of inner feelings of alienation and difference which may lead to concern with others and where we fit in society the concept of the wounded healer. Many writers mostly therapists contend that painful, early childhood experiences lead to a heightened awareness of distress in self and others, predisposing career choice. Considering the number of people who might have painful early experiences, the theory does not explain why only a small proportion of them choose to become therapists. Becoming a writer, or creative artist in any field, is perhaps as likely a response to early childhood pain as becoming a therapist. Psychological-mindedness an interest in why people think, feel and behave the way they do whether genetic or arising from childhood experiences, may be another core component in the would-be therapists make-up. Psychoanalytically, a wish to understand is in essence a wish to control ones experience or to avoid pain. Apart from thinking style and experiences, some therapists are no doubt drawn to the field by the promise of career satisfaction through personal and professional rewards. Other motivations might include a desire to understand or help people, enhanced sense of identity, self-growth, intellectual stimulation, autonomy and independence, freedom, making a difference, controlled intimacy, self-expression and authenticity. These motivations are likely to vary between private practice and the modern managed care environment (short-term, evidence based, red tape-ridden and lower paid favouring CBT, medication and the medical model). Many therapists hope to become an ascendant agent in intimate relationships without some of the risks for hurt and disappointment that we experienced in our earlier attempts at love and friendship, particularly within our own families (Goldberg, 1986, as cited in Farber et al., 2005). The need to help and understand self through the suffering of others may be a less conscious need. A career as a therapist might attract people who feel frightened and impotent, giving them a chance to control and influence their clients lives (Bugental, 1964, as cited in Farber et al., 2005). The parentified child, a role reversal where the child sacrifices his or her own needs for a parent and/or sibling, might also be a would-be therapist. Maeder (1989) asserted that therapists, as children, were often in the role of caretaker and confidante and chose their profession to fill their own emotional void. They were lured, knowingly or unknowingly, by the position of authority, by the dependence of others, by the image of benevolence, by the promise of adulation, or by a hope of vicariously helping themselves through helping others (Maeder, 1989, as cited in Farber et al., 2005). Sussman, through interviews with 14 therapists, found that therapists unconscious motivations reflected psychological needs related to sex and aggression, being affirmed by others, and feeling intimately connected. For example, a therapists needs for sexual gratification could be indirect (voyeuristic interest in patients sex lives) or, more rarely, direct (sexual relations with clients). Sussman posited that a career as an altruistic healer could be a defence against unpalatable aggressive instincts. A sadistic aspect of the profession was that, in often focusing on patients weaknesses, the therapist shatters their illusions and sense of grandiosity (2007). Ghent goes as far as to suggest that therapists are masochists: What other occupation has built into it the frustration of feeling helpless, stupid, and lost as a necessary part of the work? (1999). Sussman (2007) also suggests the existence of an element of narcissism among therapists who might benefit as much as their clients from the safety of a structured, boundaried holding environment on a regular basis (in fact, he devotes an entire chapter to therapist narcissism in his book based on a comprehensive survey of motivations, an extensive review of the literature and discussion of the results of his qualitative study of therapists). Narcissism featured strongly in another qualitative study involving talking with 11 experienced therapists (Barnett, 2007). Nine made reference to experiences of early loss and deprivation and eight to narcissistic needs. Alice Miller, in The Drama of the Gifted Child, proposed that future therapists often had narcissistic mothers and learnt to tune into others to stay connected (Miller, 1995). Of course, narcissistic personalities may adopt many careers other than therapy creative writers may also strongly tend to narcissism. Wheeler too warns of narcissistic therapists using patients as self objects who potentially massage egos with their adoration and appreciation, or support the therapists self-esteem with their dependence and vulnerability and they gaze into the pool of the clients eyes to see themselves (Wheeler, 2002). The therapeutic relationship is unusually demanding and involves being tested emotionally, intellectually and even practically and physically. Training and personal therapy can help with tolerance and understanding but the therapist needs the emotional capacity at the start. If the calling to this work is fuelled by the wounded healer hypothesis, the key question must be how psychopathology can be used to serve, not exploit, the client. Wheeler posits, if somewhat obviously, that the students desire to work with a particular client group might come from unresolved conflicts and represent a projection of the wounded parts of self. Interestingly, she questions whether the practice of ma tching like with like for example, pairing therapists who have been abused with other abuse survivors should be encouraged. Along with the possibility of greater resonance and empathy lies the opposite over-identification, projection, collusion, merger, denial or abuse. Perhaps trainees should be steered away from working with client groups with whom they have shared experiences to see whether they can genuinely enter the world of the other and whether there is a capacity for tolerating difference when there is less potential for self gain (Wheeler, 2002). However, surely the training of therapists should tell neophyte therapists before they start work with real clients whether they have the capacity to enter the world of another and tolerate difference without self gain. In their ground-breaking 15-year international study, Orlinsky and Ronnestad (2005) focused broadly on the formative experiences, practices, and development of psychotherapists at all career levels through a series of systematic, controlled, clinically and theoretically informed analyses. In response to a question asking To what extent do you feel that your development as a therapist has been influenced by the motivation to explore and resolve your personal problems? about the relationship of personal problems to career choice, nearly half (48%) of 3577 respondents answered much or very much and only 16% said not at all or slightly (Orlinsky Ronnestad, 2005). Work by Skovholt, Jennings, and Mullenbach identified several themes in the life of 10 master therapists they studied, including the presence of significant but not overwhelming stress in their early years (Skovholt et al., 2004, cited in Farber et al., 2005). Another theme in the literature is the role of intellectual curiosity, an early interest in reading and the humanities, and a teacher or mentor in the therapists career choice (Farber et al., 2005). Still, all these factors are common to any form of creative endeavour as an adult creative, intelligent children are typically curious, read voraciously, are good observers, and seek a mentor or trusted person who will not only teach them but be an audience for their thoughts and discoveries. Psychologists Murphy and Halgin (1995) compared a group of 56 psychotherapists with 53 social psychologists for their study into the influences on career choice. They found that clinical psychologists were more likely than social psychologists to have been influenced in their career selections by distress during their life, desires to resolve personal problems, and opportunities for career achievement and advancement. Most respondents did not view problematic histories as central to their choice of career, and the magnitude of difference between the two groups of professionals was small. The finding is perhaps not surprising considering the scientific nature of psychology where objective data and evidence-based methodologies might hold more weight than the self of the practitioner. In a qualitative study of social workers practising as counsellors and psychotherapists, Lewis (2004) found that gender and class had a strong influence on the career choices made by men and women in social work. Women in the sample had pursued career directions with a strong clinical focus combined with roles such as management, supervision and training and were more likely to express the need to balance their working lives with the needs of their families. Men were more likely to pursue careers in management and express feelings of responsibility to provide for their families once children were born. The analysis of data also found that men were more likely to identify their family origins as working class, while women identify their backgrounds as middle class. Zagier Roberts (1994) maintains that many of the conscious choices made by helping professionals are based on idealism. However, ideals are rooted in the unconscious and can contribute to primitive defenses, such as her example of psychoanalysts who deeply need to believe in their costly and time-consuming approach to continue the work necessary to meet their own unconscious needs. People with similar needs are often drawn to a certain setting to work through their own unresolved issues and this can stir up collective defences (Bion, 1961, cited in Zagier Roberts, 1994). Professional idealism and group identity can blind practitioners to the weaknesses of a particular therapeutic approach while failure in their work can trigger guilt and anxiety, prompting primitive defences to maintain self-esteem. As the person of the therapist is a tool in the work, perhaps workers hope that they have enough goodness to heal others. Healthy boundaries are necessary to ensure optimal distance between client and helper. Rigid boundaries and labelling clients as crazy or unfortunate and the helpers as the sane experts is not useful. The so-called charity model does not honour those who it seeks to help if the lines between sympathy and empathy become blurred. At the other extreme, professional helpers might feel guilty for being more educated or wealthy than their clients and may unconsciously try to lessen those differences through over-identification, leading to despair and burn-out. The need for clear client-therapist boundaries and realistic task definition is essential (Zagier Roberts, 1994). Personal therapy is another factor that seems to influence therapists career choice to varying extents. Having experienced the transformational effect of therapy may well lead to a desire to share the magic with others. Using personal experience to help another while continue healing ones self is a powerful motivator for many (Sussman, 2007). Controversies and debates The wounded healer notion seems to be one of the most common themes but does not explain why everyone damaged as a child does not become a therapist or why some therapists do not have a history of childhood pain. Farber and colleagues point out that adopted children are more likely to choose a career similar to their biological parents than their adoptive parents (Farber et al., 2005). The authors seem to think that the most essential of all factors contributing to therapy as a career choice is psychological-mindedness, which may be partly innate but increased through personal therapy and distress. They contend that high psychological-mindedness generally leads to a quest for greater understanding of self and others and ultimately the need to help others in a way that feels personally satisfying (Farber et al., 2005). However, as they point out, that does not explain why some therapists are more research oriented. One would not inherit psychological mindedness but, rather, a genetic trait of the order of introversion which would then evolve into, and be shaped into, what would be called psychological mindedness. Another way of understanding would-be therapists desire to help is through social learning theory that they have been differentially reinforced for certain activities, including listening to and emotionally supporting others. Perhaps it is not a matter of how much pain potential therapists experienced in childhood but how they perceive or construct those experiences. Rather than minimising, repressing or suppressing the experiences, they try to find meaning and make sense of them. Childhood, family, society and culture contribute to everyones choice of profession, not just therapists. The idea of the wounded healer makes sense that the therapist is psychologically curious as a result of his or her own personal suffering and conflicts, providing an awareness and sensitivity to understand and help others. Perhaps the question is not so much about whether or not therapists were wounded as children but whether they have begun healing their own wounds so they do not infect their clients or at least know they are wounded and are willing to consider the impact of this one their work with clients. Kottler (2004) is brutally honest about the realities, as he sees them, of being a therapist and asserts that most practitioners understand that they risk their own mental health through working so closely with people who are emotionally disturbed, in pain or in crisis. He wonders how therapists cannot but be polluted to some extent by the suffering of others and whether Freuds notion of detachment was more about protecting the practitioner than the client. Kottlers long list of negatives includes a sense of responsibility, repetition, boredom, feelings of inadequacy, isolation, brain strain, stress from systems and re-opening of ones own wounds. He cites the fact that even person-centred pioneer Carl Rogers nearly had a breakdown after being stalked by a deeply disturbed client, although other factors might also have contributed to Rogers vulnerability at the time. Yalom (2001) clearly regards therapy as a calling rather than a profession, valuing interpersonal skills, sensitivity, awareness, warmth and humour. He too is a realist sharing actual stories from his own practice and his writings inspire trainees. Yalom operates from an existential and interpersonal frame of reference, advocates a pluralistic approach and draws on a variety of theoretical models. He quotes Erik Erikson as describing the post-narcissism late-life stage as generativity, when people begin to focus less on self and want to pass on their wisdom to the next generation. Perhaps that could be a motivation for older students enrolling in counselling and therapy courses. It might be too that therapists real reasons for choosing to work in the field can be better understood with hindsight and professional maturity. Yalom writes simply and to the point in snack-sized chapters about balancing the magic, mystery, and authority that come with the job of freeing clients of their reliance on therapy. Sussman (2007) too provides inspiration to newcomers to this curious calling and both his work and Yaloms would do well as required reading in training for supervisors and students. Evaluation Limitations in much of the research to date is that findings are based on small sample groups (fewer than 15) for unstructured interview data and that comparison groups are rarely used to compare therapists motivations with other professionals. With the exception of studies by Elliott and Guy (1993) and Fussell and Bonney (1990), investigators have not used comparison groups to distinguish therapists experiences from those of other professions, such as teaching, nursing or accounting. As stated in the introduction, much of the data on therapists motivations was collected several decades ago when the profession was dominated by male Jewish psychoanalysts. It should also be acknowledged that personal motives are difficult to investigate, especially if not well understood by the therapist responding to a survey question or interview. Todays therapeutic landscape is vastly different with more female practitioners and a growing reliance on brief, solution-focused and cognitive modalities. More new studies are needed to determine whether the career motivations of therapists now aged over 50 differ significantly from those of younger therapists. Research on whether therapist career motivations vary with age, theoretical orientation or gender identity remains to be done. Conclusions So, what makes a counsellor or psychotherapist? Clearly, the question is as complex as the individuals themselves. It is likely that the answer cannot be found in a single gene, experience, mentor, book, film, event or training course. Most probably, the motivation is drawn from a mix of ingredients in varying measures including sensitivity, early distress in self and others, an interest in emotion and behavior, personal therapy, being a confidante and having an influential mentor. It should also be stressed that unconscious, dysfunctional motives for becoming a therapist, such as a need for power or recognition, can coexist with altruistic and caring motives. However, a motivation driven by personal needs, whether conscious or unconscious, carries a risk of harmful or poorly directed practice. Thorough interviews of prospective trainees, supervision focused on the self of the therapist as well as case management, ongoing or intermittent personal therapy, peer support and professional development are critical mechanisms to minimise the risk that motivations associated with personal needs do not impact on clients adversely. Without awareness of their own shadows and blind spots, practitioners risk using clients to fulfil their own unmet needs. Whether wounded or not, anyone considering a career in the field should illuminate their own hidden motivations before trying to enlighten others. Personal therapy and self-monitoring, whether through individual or group therapy, should be a mandatory requirement in training and for membership of all professional associations. Although the jury is still out on whether personal therapy improves client outcomes it should be stressed that nobody, even therapists with decades of experience, ever finishes his or her own work it is a lifelong process. Regardless of motivation, aspiring counsellors and therapists cannot be expected to be healed when they start their training course but must at least be open to change and feedback through the process if they are to help others. Periodically re-examining motivations for working in the field might be a useful exercise during times of uncertainty, fatigue and disillusionment. For example, therapists who enter the field primarily for intellectual and creative stimulation might burn out more quickly working in a managed-care CBT environment than someone with the freedom of private practice. Perhaps it would motivate therapists to attend more professional development events, join a peer network, or explore new theoretical models or client groups. Re-visiting the motivations for entering such a challenging profession could serve to revitalise, rejuvenate, renew, refresh and remind practitioners of the unique and meaningful benefits of this privileged work. As Norcross and Guy (2007) discovered in their interviews with master therapists, refocusing on the rewards of practising psychotherapy enabled many to reduce their work-related distress: Much like reminding yourself of why you fell in love with your partner, such reflection on your role as a psychotherapist can refresh our sense of calling (p. 20). So, what brings you here today?